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History.
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Pre-Byzantine İstanbul

The signs of first communal settlements in Istanbul and its surroundings date back to long years ago. While the first traces extend back to 6. Century B.C., it was discovered by research that some communities have lived in both Anatolian and European side of Istanbul. These first habitants had first lived as nomads and semi-nomads. Then they adopted a communal way of life based on fishing, agriculture and cattle breeding.
Especially in researches in Fikirtepe, it was found out that back in year 6000 B.C, animals such as dogs, goats, cattle and pigs were domesticated and the habitants took up fishing.
In the advent of 3000 B.C., there is an intense settlement activity starting in Istanbul. This period enabled the arising of small governed city units (beylik). Researches reveal that Sultanahmet Square of today and its surroundings had been center to a major settlement

Byzantine Period

The foundations of today’s Istanbul were framed by Megarians coming from Greece during 7. century B.C., a time which was also called “Period of Byzantine”. Megarians, who reached Istanbul passing through the Sea of Marmara in 680 B.C., established a city in Kadiköy of today called “Halkedonia”. The community of Halkedonia, which was also referred as “Country of the Blind”, dealt with agriculture in those periods.
In years of 660 B.C., another branch of Megarians set up another city where Sarayburnu is located now. According to the legend, Megarians who chose this area upon the advice of the oracle in Delphi Temple named the city “Byzantine”, after their commander-in-chief. Byzantine developed in a short period of time thanks to its location, making it a trading-based and strategically privileged city of defense, and became an independent and powerful site with its currency exchangeable within Greek Colonies.
In year 513 B.C., Byzantine and Halkedonia were conquered by Persians who marched passing through Anatolia. However, Spartan commander Pausantas who achieved a victory against Persians in year 489 B.C., saved Byzantine from the rule of Persians and reigned the city until 4777 B.C. At this date Athenians took over the control of the city and Byzantine became a part of Delos Union led by Athens in 4767 B.C.
Byzantine survived the attack of Germanic tribes coming from the west in year 278 B.C. Then the city was governed by Roman Empire when Romans were stretching their territory from Balkans to Asia Minor in 16 B.B. after Macedonian Wars.
By Byzantine's being taken over by Romans, its status of city-country of 700 years was over. However, it sustained its privileges.
Until 2.century A.D., the only occurrence which shook Byzantine which lived a 350-years period of tranquility was its support of Pescenius in the war between Septimus Severus and Pescenius Niger. Septimus, who won the victory in 195-196 A.D., took revenge by destroying Byzantine and slaughtering its people.
In year 330, Roman Emperor Constantine the First declared Byzantine as the new capital. The city was re-built and named “Constantinopolis”. In the period of Constantine the First, it became one of the most influential religious and political center of the world of Christianity.
The city was a scene to some attacks during 4. and 5.centuries. The attacking forces were particularly Goths and and Vizigoths. In 440, Hun Emperor Atilla attacked the city. Tax were paid to Huns until year 450.
However, in spite of all these, Constantinopolis maintained its significance in this period. The population of the city exceeded that of Rome in 5. century, with the communities brought from Thrace.
In 476, Ostrogoths dethroned Western Roman Emperor Romulus Augustus and handed the Empire to the reign of Eastern Roman Emperor Zenon. Therefore, Western Roman Empire became a thing of the past. But at the same time, Constantinopolis became the only capital of Roman Empire.
Eastern Roman Empire had turned into Byzantine Empire and Constantinopolis was no more a Roman city and became a peculiarly eastern Orthodox city.
The middle of 6. century became the beginning of a new rising period for Byzantine Empire, and therefore, for Istanbul. In the period of Emperor Justinian, who was a religious and educated person in contrast to his even illiterate predecessor, the city gained a vision of a proper Orthodox Christian capital. St. Sophia, which was damaged previously, was built in its present form in that period.
The plaque epidemic which spread in the city in year 543, killed almost half of the inhabitants of the city. The city had undergone constant catastrophes. Nevertheless, the structure built particularly by Emperor I. Justinian equipped Istanbul with a resistance against every kind of war and disaster.
In 1204, the city was taken over by Crusaders and raided ruthlessly. The greatest city of the Middle Age turned into a poor, devastated city with a population of 40-50 thousand.

Latin invasion
Istanbul met with Crusaders in 1096 for the first time. In theory, the land conquered from Muslims would be given to Byzantines, and the Byzantine Empire would support Crusaders. But, Crusaders did not abide by this deal, and built Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem.
In that period, there was a dispute over throne in Byzantine. Crusaders, who took advantage of this, marched to Golden Horn with the help of Venetians. The attack began in April 9 and the city was taken over on April 13, 1204. Istanbul was plundered for three days with an unprecedented barbarity and people were assasined. All monumental landmarks, including St. Sophia were destroyed, hundreds- of- years- old handwritten books were burned. Many precious Byzantine remains were moved to Europe. At the end of these three days, the plunder was made regular and Byzantine was shared among the Crusaders and Venetians and a Latin Empire was built.
After this period, Istanbul began to wane and was left destitute. The noble and wealthy people of the city began to migrate to İznik. When it was the turn of year 1254, Latin Empire was sieged in every direction.

Under Byzantine rule again
Second Byzantine Period began with the repossession of Istanbul by Palailogos Dynasty from the Latins in 1261. However, during this period, the city could not reclaim its past significance and privileges.
Istanbul, which was raided by Latins, lost all its commercial priorities to Galata. Istanbul turned into an agricultural, intramural city. In that period the only positive incidence in Istanbul was the settling of disputes between religious sects.
Second Byzantine Period is also known as the period of Istanbul’s being more and more circled and gradually conquered by Ottomans. While in 1373, Istanbul started to pay taxes to Ottomans, in year 1393 Sultan Yıldırım Bayezid and in 1422 Sultan Murat the Second sieged Istanbul, both without achievement.


Ottoman Period


The preparation for a conquest of Istanbul, which served as the capital of religions and cultures actually started a year ago. While Fortress of Rumelia was being constructed in 1452 in aim of controlling the Boshporus, huge canons were cast to be used in the siege. The armed forces were doubled in number. While hectic preparations were being made on land, a very powerful navy force comprised of 16 galleys was formed for the attacks from the sea.
To prevent Byzantines from receiving help, the aiding passages were taken under control and Galata, under Genoese rule, was neutralized at war. And on April 2, 1453, Ottoman leading forces took position before Istanbul fronts.
Conquest of Istanbul was an turning point for Turks, Islam and the world, in a way to shape the course of history. Most important of all, from the point of view of many historians, was the ending of Middle Age by the conquest of Istanbul.

A new era is on the rise
Istanbul was rapidly taken under control after the conquest. Byzantine Greeks were announced that they could practice their religion and traditions. Sultan Mehmet the Conqueror commanded to Orthodox Greeks to assign someone to the rank of Patriarch, which was yet unoccupied.
Privileged for their encouraging stance during wartime, the Jewish community, was given the right to have their own synagogue and their Rabbi was treated with kindness. A place of worship was allocated to Karayim Turco-Jewish Community where Arpacılar Mosque is located now.
As his first task, Sultan Mehmed the Conqueror began to have many places which were destroyed in the course of war renovated. First serious renovation activity was the rebuilding of the walls that were destroyed during the conquest. Sultan Mehmed the Conqueror bought St.Sophia in desolate and neglected condition and had it restored. Then he turned it into a mosque.
When on one hand, Istanbul was being reconstructed; on the other hand new residential areas were being formed to restructure the city. Unoccupied houses were given away to those who made services during wartime as well as anyone who wanted to move in. Muslim population from Anatolia and Rumelia was encouraged to migrate to the city. When this did not work out as planned, Sultan’s firman were sent to cities and it was announced that a particular number of people from every class be exiled to Istanbul. Christians and Jews from various regions were brought in and they were provided residence in specific parts of the city.
At the end of the year 1457, new immigrants came to live in the city due to the great fire in old capital of Edirne. In 1459, Istanbul was divided into four administrative regions each of which had different demographic specialties and it became the greatest city of Europe fifty years after the conquest.
Istanbul, which had become a tremendous city at the turn of 16.th century, had undergone much damage in the earthquake of September 14, 1509, which is also known as Lesser Doomsday. In the earthquake which lasted for 45 days, thousands of buildings were into pieces. In 1510, Istanbul was nearly reconstructed by Sultan Bayezid the 2nd, with employment of 80 thousand people.

Kanuni period
The period of 46 years, between 1520 and 1566 when Kanuni Sultan Süleyman reigned the Empire, was a rising period for Istanbul, as well as the state.
Many architectural works had been built in Istanbul during Kanuni Period. The architectural works constructed in this period, especially those by Mimar Sinan, gave a brand new look to the city. Among those, Süleymaniye Mosque and surrounding complex, Şehzadebaşı Mosque and surrounding complex, Sultan Selim Mosque and surrounding complex, Cihangir Mosque, the mosques built in the name of Mihrimah Sultan in Edirnekapı and Üsküdar, Haseki surrounding complex and Haseki Bath commissioned in the name of Hürrem Sultan are the most significant ones.
During Kanuni Sultan Süleyman’s period of reigning the state, Istanbul became a more planned city. On one respect, new migrations were prevented, and also construction of houses around walls was prohibited and it was obligated that every house had a shutter over windows and stone construction to be used in every building is Galata.

Tulip age
Tulip Age had its name from the enthusiasm of palace residents and prosperous families to grow tulips in the period between 1718 and 1730. In Tulip Age which includes the reign of Sultan Ahmed the 3rd and Grand Vizier Nevşehirli Damat İbrahim Paşa, Istanbul was a scene to many innovations and changes.
Inspired by some cities of Europe, Grand Vizier Nevşehirli Damat İbrahim Paşa, busied himself with the construction in Istanbul. Firstly, Golden Horn was improved and the surroundings of River of Kağıthane and Golden Horn were made walkways. Sadabad Pavilion was built in Kağıthane in honor of sultan and its landscape was embellished of tulip gardens. These gardens caused a glut of tulip growing among wealthy people. Also in this period many villas and gardens were built in towns of Üsküdar, Beylerbeyi, Bebek, Fındıklı, Alibeyköyü, Ortaköy ve Topkapı.
Tulip Age was not only a stage to architectural innovations. While the Age enable the development of art and literature, poets and artists became the focus of the palace. Cultural improvements took place in Istanbul with the opening of libraries and surrounding cultural complexes. Meanwhile, Istanbul witnessed the launch of more organized institutions. Fire brigade was established in that period. First printing house was also set up in this period by İbrahim Müteferrika. Moreover, a chinaware factory, clothing factory and Yalova Paper factory were launched in these years.
Tulip Age came to an end in 1730 with revolt of Patrona Halil. During this revolt, tulip gardens which are the symbol of the era, and most of the villas were completely destroyed.

Period of reforms
November 3, 1839 was the beginning of a new period in Istanbul. With Sultan’s Firman of Reforms, announced by being read to public in Gülhane Garden of Topkapı Palace, the process of westernization gained pace. In this period, lots of innovations took place in Istanbul in fields of architecture to way of life, educational institutions to industrial organizations. In parallel to the enlargement of the city, a hectic constructional activity was in progress. On one hand sultans, on the other hand statesmen, non-Muslim wealthy people and foreign embassies nearly rivaled in building villas and mansions. Dolmabahçe, Çırağan and Beylerbeyi Palaces, Ihlamur and Küçüksu Pavillons, Ayazağa, Alemdağ, İcadiye and Mecidiye Villas were built in this period. Also in that period, many state-owned buildings called “mebain-i emriyye” were built. These include postal administration offices in many districts, Tophane, Maçka Arsenals, Harbiye Ministry and Pangaltı Harbiye Buildings.
This rapid westernization activity left its traces in architecture as well. In this period, classical Ottoman architecture was abandoned and new buildings were made in western styles such as baroque, rococo, neogothic and ampire. Indeed, this change in style penetrated into architecture of mosque as well.
In those years, the were notable improvements in infrastructure and urban services. These include the building of a bridge over Golden Horn, tunnel (subway), Rumelian Rail, launch of Şirket-i Hayriye which administered in-city sea transport, establishment of other state offices of Şehremaneti (Municipality), hauling of the first telegraph line, establishing of Police Force Directorate and the police stations under its control, servicing of Vakıf Gureba Hospital and Horse-Drawn Tram Company.
A great importance was given to the opening of modern educational institutions which would nourish the process of westernization. Darülfünun, the foundation of today’s University of Istanbul, men’s and girl’s high schools, School of Architecture, School of Telegraph Information, College of Education, Teachers High School, School of Forestry, School of Nursery and Midwifery, Mekteb-i Sultani (Lycee of Galatasaray), School of Industry and School of Medicine and State Administration were the schools which started their education period then.

Constitutional period
Constitutional Period started with the dethroning of Sultan Abdülaziz n August 31, 1876. In place of Sultan Abdülaziz, Abdülhamid the 2nd took the throne. And he publicized the Constitution on December 23, 1876.
A short time later, Turco-Russian War which out broke on April 27, 1877 gave birth to many problems. In this war, which was publicly called “Ninety Three War”, the transfer of soldiers from the city to west, the sick coming from the front and the Rumelian entry men escaping from the war caused lots of troubles. In February 13, 1878 Sultan Abdülhamid transiently closed the Assembly. In March 3, 1878, upon marching of Russian armies up to Yeşilköy (Ayastefanos), Ayastefanos agreement was signed and a long peace period began.
During the reign of Sultan Abdülhamid the 2nd, the issue of education gained importance. While many schools were opened in Istanbul, at the beginning of 1900, the number of schools was almost 30. School of State Administration, School of Law, School of Fine Arts, School of Accounting, School of High Medicine, School of Teacher Education, School of Science and Accounting, School of Pharmacy, School of Commerce, Halkalı Advanced Studies of Agriculture, Hamidiye School of Veterinary Medicine, School of Forestry and Mining, School of Marine Trade, School for the Mute and Blind, Men’s and Girl’s Schools of Industry, Universities, high schools and secondary schools. Inspired by these improvements, private schools such as Darülfeyz, Burhan-i Terakki, Numune-i Irfan started their education in this period as well.
Sultan Abdülhamid the 2nd declared II. Constitution in July 24 1908 and was dethroned after March 31 Incidence and was exiled. Sultan Mehmet Reşad the 5th took up the throne in his place in April 27, 1909.
The period after that in Istanbul passed with wars and turbulence. In January 19, 1910 Çırağan Palace was burned. This was the first of a series of bad things to come. In February 6, 1911 a fire broke out in Babıali. In October 18, 1912, the Balkan War started. Once again Istanbul witnessed the disastrous scenes like in Ninety Three War.
In January 23, 1913, Babıali Raid broke out. Kıbrıslı Kamil Pasha government was forced to resign under threat of a gun. In June 11, 1913 Vizier Mahmut Şevket Pasha was assasined. The wave of bribery, corruption and theft started to shake the base of state structure. In
December, 14 1914, the First World War broke out. In order to fight the famine and poverty brought by the war, hoarding and black market could not be prevented in spite of the efforts of precaution by official institutions.

Years of invasion and armistice
After the First World War, Ottoman Empire was defeated with its allies. After Mondros Armistice was signed, the navy fleet of 55 ships anchored in the banks of Haydarpaşa Port in November 13, 1918 and therefore the invasion of Istanbul began.
The Parliamental Assembly which was annulled in 1918, convened again in January 12, 1920 and ratified Misak-ı Milli (National Contract) on January 28. On March 4, 1920, the invasion of Istanbul was approved at London Conference. In March 4, postal administration office was invaded. And in the night of March 15, the action of general invasion was triggered. In the morning, a large number of soldiers were launched to Istanbul and important parts of the city were taken under control. In late morning, the city was completely invaded. In the afternoon English soldiers raided the Parliament Assembly building. And in April 11, Parliament Assembly was closed. And about 150 politicians were exiled to Malta. In this period, some secret organizations were formed in Istanbul and started activating for freedom. Patrolling Society, Mim Group and National Defense organization were the most influential secret organizations in Istanbul in that period. They organized demonstrations and carried out activities like handover of arms, soldiers and munitions and exchanging secret information.
In October 9, 1920, Turkish soldiers entered Izmir boundaries led by supreme national leader Mustafa Kemal Atatürk. This event started the independence process for Istanbul. With Mudanya Agreement signed in October 11, it was agreed that the invading parties leave Thrace gradually. Turkish Grand National Assembly which convened in Ankara declared the dynasty be abolished in November 1, 1922. Therefore, even though Istanbul maintained being the legal capital until October 1923, it was no longer the actual capital. On November 16 Sultan Vahdettin left Istanbul.
In November 4, 1923, Istanbul was completely free of invading forces. Therefore, the second invasion of Istanbul by Europeans after Latin invasion terminated.


Rebuplican Period

After the ending of days of invasion, Istanbul gained a new look with the declaration of the republic. Istanbul, which was a capital to three great empires, left this title to Ankara. The population which was around 850 thousand at the turn of the century, decreased to 700 thousand in the census of 1927.
While the efforts for westernization were shifted to Ankara particularly in cultural, political, economical, architectural, ideological respects, Istanbul was seriously neglected. And Istanbul, in its history of over two thousand years, started to be governed from the outside for the first time. Much less resources than it produced were allocated to the city, which continued to be the economical and commercial center.
In this period, no work was done with regards to urban planning. There were only changes which reflected the ideology of the fresh state; changing of the street names, allocation of buildings of Ottoman dynasty and empire for new functions, St.Sophia’s turning into a mosque, empire organizations being opened to service with new names and arrangements were the merely symbolically significant activities of the period.
The first practices regarding Istanbul’s urban planning started when Adnan Menderes, leader of Democratic Party, was in power. Social movements starting after 1950s and population burst resulting from this and on the other hand the modern city image harbored by Democratic Party executives resulted in a hectic architectural works in Istanbul. The roads which were launched to service in spite of the destruction of historical city structure extremely changed the fabric of the city.
Between 1950 and 1960, many main highways were open to public service and already active ones were expanded. When those roads were being opened to public service, thousands of buildings were demolished. Many historical sites were damaged. Many works of art were either transferred or destroyed. Also in this period major buildings were constructed which reflect the change in city’s architectural canvas such as the Municipality, Hilton Hotel and Divan Hotel.
Between the years 1950 – 1960, Istanbul did not undergo any notable urban planning activity until 1970s, after the urbanization works in Democratic Party period.
In 1973, Boshporus Bridge was opened to service. Boshporus Bridge with its surrounding passageways caused the emerging of new settlements and new fields of profitability in the neighborhood of the metropolis.
After 1980s, a second settlement plan was put into action though not as comprehensive as the first one. Clearance of Golden Horn from industrial institutions, the launch of Sultan Mehmed the Conqueror Bridge in 1988 as the second bridge over Boshporus, Tarlabaşı Boulevard, piled road in European side of Boshporus, the coast between Kadıköy and Bostancı’s being filled and turned into a highway, express tram, metro project between Taksim-Levent were the major issues of this plan. Also in these years, the migration to Istanbul increasingly gained pace. The city was surrounded by shanty towns and similar cheap cooperative houses.
1980s were the ones when industrial institutions were moved out of the city. Thanks to the popularization of natural gas network and meticulous controls in unqualified coal consumption, residents of Istanbul lived a winter of tranquility last year regarding air pollution. Also, the water supply problem, one of the most troubled issue of the city, was handled for the most part as a result of the employment of new facilities of water supply and new investments on water softening and its distribution.

Geographical Location​

Istanbul… The main reason of Istanbul’s being a very popular city for which wars are made, lives are lost is its geographical location…
Let’s review this location first: In its south stretches Marmara Sea and in its north is Black Sea. Its west part is in Europe and east part is in Asia. The important waterline dividing Istanbul into two is the Bosphorus… The only alternative to reach the Aegean Sea and the Meditteranean Sea, therefore to open sea is to use Istanbul and the the Bosphorus…
Istanbul is both the nearest Asian city to Europe and the nearest European city to Asia. What adds to Istanbul’s significance is its being a port city and all trade paths’ passing through the city for thousands of years…
Another important feature of Istanbul is that it has a highly sheltered structure. Especially the center which is presently called as the “historical peninsula”, which was made capital city by both Byzantine and Ottoman Empires and its being located on a hill surrounded by three seas made it almost impossible to be conquered… Indeed, Haliç had the quality of being an unparalleled harbour sheltering navy fleets.

Land of the blinds

A famous myth explains very precisely the unmatched location of Istanbul :
Commander Byzas, who gave his name to the empire to be later called as Byzantine, sets off to sail to build a new colony from where Greece is located today. During the long voyage and his searches, he goes to an oracle for advice. The oracle makes this prediction: “You are going to build your city right opposite of the land of the blinds!” Continuing his voyage, Byzas reaches to the banks of Sarayburnu, the Istanbul of today. When he sees this protected peninsula, he thinks that it is just the place that he was looking for; meanwhile he notices the area of residence on the opposite side (Kadıköy at present). Byzas decides that the people who, given the excellent area of residence right before them, do not prefer to reside there are blind. And since it also coincides with the prediction, he builds his colony on this land without hesitation…

Istanbul, still geographically perfect!

Although thousands of years have passed, Istanbul still maintains its geographical importance. Today Istanbul is a huge metropolis connecting continents, cultures, religions and being home to eleven million people; and one of the greatest business and cultural center of the region…

Climate

is not possible to put into one type the climate of region where Istanbul is completely located. The city has different climate conditions from many areas of inhabitance because of its geographical location and physical geography.
Three types of climate is dominant in Istanbul throughout the year. These are north and south entering climates and mild climate. The climates dependent on west and east directional winds are trivial. The most frequent of the three is the climate observed when northern winds are dominant. There are four phases according to the seasons; cold, hot, and two transitional phases: One of which is long and the other is short…​